Thomas, J. W. 2000. A review of research on PBL. http://www.
bobpearlman.org/BestPractices/PBL Research.pdf (accessed February
28, 2009).
專題導向的效益
According to teachers' self-reports, experience with Project-Based Learning activities had a variety of positive benefits for students including attitudes towards learning, work habits, problem-solving capabilities, and self esteem.
In summary, the authors state that:
" Students, working both individually and cooperatively, feel empowered when they use
effective work habits and apply critical thinking to solve problems by finding or creating
solutions in relevant projects.
In this productive work, students learn and/or strengthen their work habits, their critical thinking skills, and their productivity.
Throughout this process,
students are learning new knowledge, skills and positive attitudes." (p.8)
根據教師的自我報告，經驗與基於項目的學習活動進行了各種積極的福利，包括學生對學習的態度，工作習慣，解決問題的能力，和自尊。
總之，作者指出：
“同學們，單獨和協同工作，當他們感到授權使用
有效的工作習慣和運用批判性思維，解決問題通過尋找或創造
解決方案相關的項目。
在這種富有成效的工作，學生學習和/或加強自己的工作習慣，他們的批判性思維技能，以及他們的生產力。
在整個過程中，
學生在學習新的知識，技能和積極的態度。“（第8頁）
認知心理學方面更有多支研究取向支持專題學習的活動發展，包括動機、專家、情境因素、與科技等四方面的研究取向(Thomas, 2000:6-8)
原文
Research on Cognition: Challenge, Choice, Autonomy, Constructivism, and Situated
Cognition
There are a number of strands of cognitive research cited in support of classroom research and development activities in Project-Based Learning.
These strands can be divided into research on motivation, expertise, contextual factors, and technology.
Research on motivation includes research on students' goal orientation and on the effect of different classroom reward systems.
All things being equal, students who possess a motivational orientation that focuses on learning and mastery of the subject matter are more apt to exhibit sustained engagement with schoolwork than students whose orientation is to merely perform satisfactorily or complete assigned work (Ames, 1992).
Classroom reward systems that discourage public comparability and favor task involvement over ego-involvement and cooperative goal structures over competitive goal structures tend to reduce ego threat on the part of students and encourage a focus on learning and mastery (Ames, 1984).
Accordingly, Project Based Learning designs, because of their emphasis on student autonomy, collaborative learning, and assessments based on authentic performances are seen to maximize students' orientation toward learning and mastery. Additionally, Project-Based Learning designers have built in additional features such as variety, challenge, student choice, and non-school-like problems in order to promote students' interest and perceived value (Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
Another strand of research on cognition that has influenced Project-Based Learning designs has been research on experts and novices.
This research has not only revealed the importance of metacognitive and self-regulatory capabilities on the part of experts, but also the absence of planning and self-monitoring skills on the part of inexperienced and young problem solvers (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Glaser, 1988).
Accordingly, the way to insure that young children become proficient at inquiry and problem solving is to simulate the conditions under which experts master subject matter and become proficient at conducting investigations (Blumenfeld et al, 1991). This has also led to recommendations for shifting the major portion of instruction in schools from teacher-directed, teacher-assigned "schoolwork" with its emphasis on comprehension, to student-initiated, goal-driven, independent, "intentional learning" models with an emphasis on knowledge building (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991).
Research on experts and novices has also given practitioners ideas for enhancing students' ability to benefit from Project-Based Learning, primarily through the introduction of varieties of "scaffolding" (learning aids, models, training strategies) intended to help students become proficient at conducting inquiry activities.
"The master-apprentice relationship is used as an analogy for the teaching-learning situation...like masters, teachers should scaffold instruction by breaking down tasks; use modeling, prompting, and coaching to teach strategies for thinking and problem solving; and gradually release responsibility to the learner" (Blumenfeld
et al., 1991).
For example, "cognitive apprenticeship" (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1991) is a model for teaching and learning in which students: (a) learn the "crafts" of subject matter areas such as mathematics, writing, and reading in the identical context that they would be expected to use these skills in later life; (b) receive a large amount of practice; (c) learn from experts who would model the skills and then give feedback to students as they practice them; and (d) receive an emphasis on the acquisition of metacognitive skills useful for applying the to-be-learned skills.
The influence of contextual factors on cognition has also engendered a good deal of research and has, according to the citations in PBL research, had an important influence on the authenticity and autonomy elements of Project-Based Learning. According to research on "situated cognition," learning is maximized if the context for learning resembles the real-life context in which the to-be-learned material will be used; learning is minimized if the context in which learning occurs is dissimilar to the context in which the learning will be used (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989).
Additionally, research on contextual factors has led to the recommendation that, to the extent that it is important for students to be able to apply what they learn to solve problems and make decisions, instruction be carried out in a problem-solving
context.
Learning that occurs in the context of problem solving is more likely to be retained and applied.
Such learning is also seen as being more flexible than the inert knowledge that is
acquired as a result of more traditional didactic teaching methods (Boaler, 1998b; Bransford, Sherwood, Hasselbring, Kinzer, & Williams, 1990).
